Thermal Properties of Lignin in Copolymers Blends and Composites a Review
Introduction
Cellulose, lignin, and hemicellulose are the main chemical components of plant fiber raw materials (Li S.X. et al., 2019; Yang et al., 2019; Liu West. et al., 2020; Liu H. et al., 2021; Liu K. et al., 2021; Liu W. et al., 2021; Wang et al., 2021). Among these three components of lignocellulose, lignin is the only baggy aromatic polymer (Effigy 1A; Deuss et al., 2015; Xu J. et al., 2020; Ma et al., 2021b). Previously, the product of Kraft lignin and soda lignin was mainly used as a dye to provide a heat source for the burning department of the alkali recovery in the lurid and newspaper manufacture (Li et al., 2016; Xu et al., 2021). Given that lignin is a rich natural resource, increasing attention is paid to the research, development, and utilization of lignin in today's increasingly scarce resource (Upton and Kasko, 2016; Li X. et al., 2019; Li et al., 2021). The structure of lignin is relatively complex than other biomass; therefore, it has a broad research prospect to develop appropriate methods for separation and refinery of lignin, conduct detailed research, and then unitize it to fix materials rationally (Ragauskas et al., 2014; Chen et al., 2016; Meng L.Y. et al., 2019; Chen et al., 2020b; Ma et al., 2020).
Figure 1. (A) Typical structure of lignocellulose (Zhu et al., 2020). (B) Precursors and (C) common interunit linkages (Luis Espinoza-Acosta et al., 2018).
Lignin is composed of three kinds of structural units such every bit syringl unit (Due south), guaiacol unit of measurement (G), and p-hydroxyphenyl unit (H) (Figure 1B; Decostanzi et al., 2019; Chen et al., 2020c; Shi and Ma, 2019; Liu Grand. et al., 2021). In the previous literatures, the lignin of softwoods is mainly Thousand-type units; meanwhile, hardwoods are mainly M-type and South-type units. There are more abundant types of lignin in gramineous plants, including Yard, S, and H-type units. They are connected past ether bonds (about 60–lxx%) and carbon–carbon bonds (about 30–xl%). Amid them, all the alkyl-aryl ether bonds (β-O-4 and α-O-four), the β-β' linkages, and the β-5 linkages are predominant between above three structural units (Figure 1C; Zheng et al., 2021). The structure composition and interunit linkages of lignin are as well closely related to the external factors such equally the growing environment of plants. Therefore, the different structural units, different linkage, and the complex relationship between lignin and glycan in the cell wall endow lignin one of the most circuitous natural polymers in nature. Lignin molecules contained a variety of agile functional groups both on the benzene ring and the side chain, including aliphatic hydroxyl (Al-OH), phenolic hydroxyl (Ph-OH), carboxyl (-COOH), carbonyl (-C = O), and methoxy groups (-OCH3), determining the chemical properties and reactivity of lignin. The chemical backdrop of lignin allow information technology and its derivatives to exist used as materials for value-high. Furthermore, because the high carbon content of lignin, information technology is also an ideal carbon material precursor (Shi and Ma, 2019). Lignin-derived carbon materials are widely used in various fields like energy storage, adsorbent, and goad carriers (Suhas et al., 2007; Saha et al., 2014).
In this review article, we focus on the current achievements of lignin-based materials. The categories of lignin were introduced briefly. Then, the lignin-based materials like lignin-based hydrogels, flocculants, and resin adhesive, and lignin-plastic composites are summarized. In add-on, the lignin-derived carbon materials such as activation carbon, carbon fibers, and carbon dots are discussed in particular. Finally, the existed bug and future trends of lignin-derived materials are proposed as well. It is expected that the lignin-based materials are promising applications in various fields.
The Separation Methods and Compositions of Lignin
Lignocellulose is one of the well-nigh abundant biomass resource, mainly equanimous of xl–50% cellulose, 20–30% hemicellulose, and 25–35% lignin (Lievonen et al., 2016). According to statistics, about 5 thousand million tons of lignin has been produced globally every year (Chio et al., 2019; Meng Y. et al., 2019). Chemical structures of lignin varied among different plants species, such as softwoods, hardwoods, and grasses (Boerjan et al., 2003). Lignin does not represent a unmarried substance, merely for a grouping of substance that have common properties in plants (Garcia Calvo-Flores and Dobado, 2010). The separation of lignin, based on the raw materials, tin can be divided into 3 types of separation from constitute raw materials, separation from pulp, and separation from pulp waste product liquid. Based on the separation principle, the first i is to remove the cellulose and hemicellulose by dissolution, leaving the insoluble residual of lignin. Meanwhile, the 2d is to dissolve the lignin, exit the insoluble balance of cellulose and hemicellulose, and recover lignin from the solution (Zhao and Abu-Omar, 2021). Bjorkman proposed a classic method for separating lignin by extraction afterward brawl milling as early as 1953, resulting in the production of milled wood lignin. The milled wood lignin is closed to natural lignin, but in view of the yield is low, so information technology is often used to study the structure of lignin (Wang et al., 2009). Therefore, it is always a challenge to find a clean and efficient process to separate and recover lignin components with high yield and high structural integrity. Now, the research on biomass refining became a hot direction, which is to dissever and extract lignin from biomass feedstock by pretreatment to make it easier for subsequent conversion and further applications. Numerous efforts have been devoted to find the potential pretreatment methods, and various methods have been explored, such as physical, chemical, physicochemical, and biological methods (Hochegger et al., 2019). For case, hydrothermal pretreatment is an ecology-friendly method for biomass separation. Sun et al. (2014) developed an integrated strategy including hydrothermal pretreatment and alkaline post-treatment, studied the changes of linkages during procedure, and obtained the highest yield of lignin up to 79.3%. These findings are benign to sympathize depolymerization and maximize the potential utilizations of lignin. In improver, there have been noticeable advances using novel solvents like ionic liquids, which are called "dark-green solvents." Since no toxic chemicals are formed and almost 100% can be recycled, it is considered that the ionic liquid pretreatment is a green solvent. Sun et al. (2019) applied a microwave-assisted ionic liquid arroyo to decrease the resistance of biomass in biorefinery and led to a high yield of lignin and efficient extraction of biomass. Deep eutectic solvent (DES) pretreatment is another new blooming green strategy for reducing biomass recalcitrance. Shen et al. (2019) employed biomass-derived DES including biomass-derived chemicals to deconstruct the construction of Eucalyptus for lignin valorization. Ma et al. (2021a) used microwave-assisted DES pretreatment to improve the lignin extractability and valorization of poplars. Afterward DES pretreatment, the enzymatic saccharification rations were significantly increased, indicating that this microwave-assisted DES method could reduce the biomass recalcitrance and promote the lignin valorization. There have been series of review papers that summarize lignin extracted methods (Azadi et al., 2013; Chio et al., 2019). Herein, we mainly talk over the common industrial lignin.
In the paper industry, the four main methods of separating technical lignin (or pulping) are the Kraft pulping, sulfite pulping, soda pulping, and organosolv pulping processes. The obtained lignin types are Kraft lignin, lignosulfonate, soda lignin, and organosolv lignin, respectively (El Mansouri and Salvado, 2006). Due to the different processing methods, these four technical lignins have different structures, compositions, and properties. Kraft lignin is the residue of sulfate pulping in paper production, which is precipitated by adjusting the pH value of blackness liquor (Huang et al., 2017). The structure of Kraft lignin is highly modified and soluble in alkaline solution and organic solvents with high polarity (Chakar and Ragauskas, 2004). Lignosulfonate is sulfonated lignin, which is removed from the woods raw materials past sulfite pulping. Lignosulfonate is soluble in acidic solution, alkali metal solution, and organic solvents with high polarity. Fifty-fifty though they comprise sulfur, these two kinds of lignin have dissimilar characteristics, and the molecular weight of lignosulfonate is higher (Vishtal and Kraslawski, 2011). Soda lignin (or Alkaline lignin) is generally gratuitous of sulfur, which has a relatively lower molecular weight (Woermeyer et al., 2011). Organic solvents lignin is collected by organosolv pulping procedure, which has the characteristics of high purity, high homogeneity, and low molecular weight (Li and Takkellapati, 2018; Yu and Kim, 2020). However, the procedure includes the necessary solvent recovery steps, increasing the cost (Zhao and Abu-Omar, 2021).
The Fabrication and Properties of Lignin-Based Materials
Owing to its adept biocompatibility, ecological friendliness, and low toxicity, lignin is widely explored for high-value materials instead of burning (Si, 2019; Huang et al., 2020; Liu R. et al., 2020). The aromatic properties also brand it possible to supervene upon phenol to fix phenolic resin adhesives (Pang et al., 2020; Pei et al., 2020). Herein, the synthesis and properties of lignin-based materials with various applications are described.
Lignin-Based Hydrogels
Hydrogel is a kind of hydrophilic three-dimensional network gel, which can swell and concur large amounts of water. Woods biomass materials such as cellulose and hemicellulose are widely used in the training of hydrogels (Liu et al., 2017; Du et al., 2019; Li et al., 2020). Moreover, lignin is in its infancy as strength modifier, agglutinative agents, or other functional fillers in hydrogels for lignin fractionation, wearable electronics, UV shielding, and biomaterials (Thakur and Thakur, 2015). Dai et al. (2019) fabricated a lignin-contained cellulose hydrogel for lignin fractionation. In this hydrogel, alkali metal lignin was employed to play as a functional cross-linker to simultaneously improve the mechanical performances and realize specific absorbed or filtered. This lignin-cellulose hydrogel showed a reliable way to integrate lignin materials and lignin fractionation. Han et al. (2021) developed a polyvinyl booze (PVA) hydrogel with lignin-silver hybrid nanoparticles, which exhibited infrequent compressibility. Every bit a force modifier of hydrogel, lignin-silver hybrid nanoparticles provided stiff hydrogen bonds and facilitated the electron transfer. Considering these outstanding traits of this PVA/lignin-silver hybrid nanoparticle hydrogel, this hydrogel could be used equally a pressure level-sensitive sensor to monitor signals. Later on demethylation, the phenolic hydroxyl groups of lignin have been released, which not just fabricated the lignin with adhesion property but also improved the reducibility. Qian et al. (2021) took full advantage of this to reduce graphene oxide and develop a catechol lignin/reduced graphene oxide/sodium alginate/polyacrylamide double network hydrogel with integrated conductive, agglutinative, and UV-blocking performance. The obtained hydrogel exhibited bang-up potential in flexible electronic peel. Gao et al. (2021) designed a nanosilver immobilized glycine decorated lignin hydrogel as a goad, which showed outstanding catalytic performance of p-nitrophenol reduction. Amino modified lignin hydrogel networks played a role for catalyst carrier with abundant anchoring sites to disperse and stabilize the silver nanoparticles. Afterwards 10 cycles, the obtained goad tin all the same maintain a catalytic efficiency of 98%, and in that location is no obvious collapse of the structure besides as the leaching of nanosilver can be ignored.
For the biomedical field, Zhang et al. (2020) assembled a biomimetic lignin/poly(ionic liquids) blended hydrogel by supramolecular interactions for the application of wound dressing. The resultant hydrogel exhibited satisfying mechanical strength, self-healing properties, bactericidal activity, and anti-oxidant activity. Lignin every bit reinforcement and antioxidant improved the mechanical enhancement and antioxidant activeness of the hydrogel. As well, lignin-based hydrogels have been used for the controlled release of drug (Witzler et al., 2018). Borisenkov et al. (2016) synthesized a hemicellulose and lignin composite hydrogel for drug commitment. Pectin was embedded in the hydrogel to form hydrophilic supramolecular complexes, which was employed to evangelize β-glucuronidase and estrogens.
In add-on, due to the changes of solubility, lignin tin can be used every bit pH-sensitive ingredient to form pH-responsive hydrogel in shape retentivity and controlled release (Figueiredo et al., 2017; Jin et al., 2018). Dai L. et al. (2020) prepared an all-lignin-based pH-stimuli-responsive hydrogel for the actuator. Herein, the kraft lignin was crosslinked with poly(ethylene glycol) diglycidyl ether to build this lignin hydrogel. As shown in Figure 2A, the lignin-based hydrogel bended spontaneously as the pH changes. Therefore, a mimetic behavior to hook up a wire has been achieved by adjusting pH (Effigy 2B). These studies demonstrated that the use of lignin in hydrogel can contribute to areas such every bit electronics manufacturing, wearable devices, drug delivery, and actuators.
Effigy two. (A) pH-responsive deformation of the lignin-based hydrogel by calculation HCl and KOH solution; (B) Actuating performance of the lignin-based hydrogel for being hooked up (Dai L. et al., 2020).
Lignin–Phenol–Formaldehyde Resin Adhesive
From the perspective of the structural characteristics of lignin, it is besides a loftier-value approach to prepare lignin–phenol–formaldehyde resin adhesive. Pang et al. (2017) studied the relationships between structure and property of two technical lignins in synthesis and performance of lignin–phenol–formaldehyde resin agglutinative. They were obtained from acidic and element of group i organosolv pulping of bamboo. After purification, they were both characterized thoroughly, and the structural features were compared. The results showed that the long-chain hydrocarbon derivatives presented in lignin would bear upon the synthesis of lignin–phenol–formaldehyde resin.
Depolymerization, activation, phenolate, and demethylation are the common pre-treatment processes to release the phenolic hydroxyl grouping of lignin (Naseem et al., 2016; Wang et al., 2018; An et al., 2019; Gan and Pan, 2019). For instance, Ma et al. (2018) investigated a catalytic oxidative depolymerization process for increasing the content of phenolic hydroxy groups of Kraft lignin. Hydrogen peroxide and copper sulfate were used as catalysts in this process. Afterwards reaction, the phenolic hydroxyl content increased from 1.55 to 2.66 mmol g–1, and both the molecular weight and polydispersity decreased. The resultant lignin was used to synthesize lignin–phenol–formaldehyde resin with 50% exchange rate, whose various indexes all accomplished the national standards. Base of operations-catalyzed depolymerization of softwood Kraft lignin was used to release the phenolic hydroxyl of lignin to substitute phenol in resins (Solt et al., 2018). Modified renewable lignin-based phenols could supervene upon phenol even at a loftier degree of substitution of 70%. As shown in Figure three, Li et al. (2018) employed NaOH/urea aqueous solution to depolymerize the alkali lignin to prepare depression molecular weight lignin derivatives, so every bit to further prepare lignin–phenol–formaldehyde resin. Later depolymerization treatment procedure, phenyl-propane trimers were mainly obtained, and the phenolic hydroxyl group content increased from 0.07 to 0.12 mmol one thousand–1. The resultant depolymerized brine lignin–phenol–formaldehyde resin displayed fast curing rate, depression formaldehyde emission, and high bonding strength. Microbes such as the chocolate-brown-rot, white-rot, and soft-rot fungi were also investigated for the demethylation of Kraft lignin (Venkatesagowda and Dekker, 2020). Demethylation past the activeness of enzymes removed the O-methyl/methoxy of lignin and produced the demethylated Kraft lignin enriched in vicinal-hydroxyl groups, which has potential in lignin–phenol–formaldehyde resin. These studies demonstrated that the depolymerized lignin derivatives can supersede phenol in the preparation of phenolic resin.
Figure 3. Schematic diagram of NaOH/urea aqueous solution to depolymerize the brine lignin to prepare low molecular weight lignin derivatives (Li et al., 2018).
Lignin-Based Flocculants
Lignin tin can be employed to treat wastewater. Nonetheless, most of them suffered from poor solubility, chemic inactivity, and low molecular weight. Therefore, various chemical modification methods have been utilized to lignin to meliorate the flocculation performance (Wang et al., 2020b). Guo et al. (2018) developed an environmentally friendly lignin-based flocculant with improved flocculation by grafting the cationic acrylamide and dimethyl diallyl ammonium chloride monomers onto the alkaline lignin. The flocculation performance of the obtained lignin-based flocculant was low affected by pH. Moreover, the addition of Ca2+ and Mg2+ could significantly enhance the flocculation performance. Chen et al. (2020a) employed enzymatic hydrolysis lignin as raw materials, using polyacrylamide and methylacryloyloxyethyltrimethyl ammonium chloride as graft agent to synthesize a lignin-based cationic flocculant (Fifty-CPA). The resultant L-CPA could self-assemble into octopus-similar nanospheres, which endowed the high flocculation efficiency nether the pH condition of 5–nine. A pocket-sized flocculant could exist used to flocculate kaolin intermission. Such cheap, environmentally friendly, and technically viable lignin-based flocculant exhibited a broad prospect in wastewater treatment process. Wang et al. (2020a) designed a lignin-based flocculant by balmy copolymerization of lignosulfonate and [2-(methacryloyloxy) ethyl] trimethylammonium chloride solution. By changing the reaction conditions, two classes of flocculant were obtained, which were suitable for faux dye wastewater (removal charge per unit upward to 95%), kaolin (turbidity removal rate up to 99.2%), and Escherichia coli suspensions (bacterial removal charge per unit upwardly to 97.5%), respectively. Anionic lignin-based flocculant was too prepared (Aldajani et al., 2021). Aldajani et al. (2021) prepared a hydrolyzed anionically modified lignin-acrylamide flocculant and investigated the unlike properties of polymer on the pause's attributes such as zeta potential, relative turbidity, flocs strength, and recoverability. Through the combination of many of its functional groups, namely, amide, carboxyl, and hydroxyl, it is observed that this lignin-based flocculant had a deeper adsorption on alumina particles than other polymers. These studies exhibited that the production and application of high-efficiency lignin-based flocculants are of great significance for resources conservation, low carbon footprint, and wastewater reuse.
Lignin-Plastic Composites
In past decades, billions of tons of non-biodegradable plastics take been produced, which is a significant source of pollution. As an arable natural polymer, lignin could exist integrated into plastics to fabricate loftier-value biodegradable materials with economic competitiveness (Sen et al., 2015; Kazzaz et al., 2019). Therefore, the preparation of composite materials by mixing lignin with various plastics had attracted attention. For instance, Cerro et al. (2021) produced a poly(lactic acid) (PLA)/lignin nanoparticle composite containing cinnamaldehyde (Ci) for packaging and biomedical applications, which exhibited a meliorate UV-light barrier holding and biodegradable functioning. Herein, lignin nanoparticles are used as fillers to enhance the mechanical forcefulness of polymer composites. The toxicity of PLA/lignin composites has been studied as well, and the results showed normal blood parameters afterward a unmarried dose of composites. Xiong et al. (2020) produced a composite by blending poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) (PBAT) and Eucalypt hydrothermal lignin (Figure 4A). Two strategies were followed to amend the operation of composites, including methylated lignin replaced swell lignin as filler, and twin-screw extrusion was used equally preparation method. The obtained PBAT/lignin blended materials exhibited a toll advantage, in which the cost was significantly reduced by 36%.
Figure 4. (A) Preparation of a blended by blending PBAT and Eucalypt hydrothermal lignin via two strategies (Xiong et al., 2020); (B) Digital photos of 0%, 5%, and 10% lignin (from top to bottom) exhibiting the effect on print quality (Sutton et al., 2018).
Three-dimensional (3D) press is a method of shape rendering. The ideal materials for 3D press need to have practiced extrudability. The unique structures of lignin such as ether groups, β-O-4′ linkages, and oxygenated aromatic bonds endow it suitable to contain into conventional plastic materials to build hybrid materials by 3D printing with more environmentally friendly and meliorate printability (Nguyen et al., 2018b). A report reported that organosolv hardwood lignin was mixed with nylon as 3D press ink, and the lignin was institute to improve the printability by reducing the cook viscosity and enhance the stiffness and tensile forcefulness of the structure (Nguyen et al., 2018a). The proposed machinery was lignin domains forming hydrogen bonds with the plastic matrix. This study came up with a new strategy of using biomass lignin as a feedstock for valuable 3D press materials. Sutton et al. (2018) reported renewable, modified lignin-containing photopolymer resins for 3D printing by stereolithography. Compared to conventional photoactive resins, the lignin-containing resins displayed satisfied ductility, in which the lignin content can accomplish upward to 15%. High impress quality and visual clarity were obtained as shown in Effigy 4B of the photographs of formulations with unlike lignin content. These studies showed that lignin is cheap and eco-friendly as a feedstock for plastic composites.
Lignin-Derived Carbon Materials
Carbon materials were extensively practical in numerous fields such as energy storage and conversion, ecology applications, and catalyst (Dong et al., 2020). Generally, carbon materials are derived from petroleum-based chemicals by carbonization handling, which is not-renewable, non-cyclable, and less environmentally friendly (Shi and Ma, 2019). Lignins are ideal raw materials every bit carbon precursors due to the low toll and high carbon content. It is of great significance to protect the environment, save resources, and develop the economy harmoniously.
Lignin-Derived Activated Carbons
Due to the high cost of producing activated carbon from coal, the production of activated carbon from lignocellulosic feedstock has attracted much attention (Jiao et al., 2021). A series of chemic activators like KOH and KtwoCO3 was adopted. For case, He et al. (2021) chose lignin-based pitch from black liquor as carbon precursor and KOH equally chemical activator to synthesize porous activated carbon materials. The activation temperature on the lignin-derived agile carbon was also explored. It was establish that the maximum specific surface surface area and total pore book reached the values of 3652 mtwo g–ane and 2.35 cmiii chiliad–1 under the activation temperature of 850°C. In addition, the ability of the lignin-derived activated carbon to blot gaseous benzene has also been studied, and the adsorption performance exhibited that the carbon could be a adept candidate for absorbing. Equally shown in Effigy v, Xu Q. Q. et al. (2020) employed sodium lignosulfonate (SLS) and ionic liquid ([Amim]Cl) to produce a new polymeric ionic liquid [Amim]LS and NaCl. The mixture was used every bit a forerunner to fix North-doped porous carbon material via direct carbonization without other activations. Herein, NaCl played the role of temple and activation amanuensis. The obtained lignin-based porous carbon accomplished a nitrogen content of 4.68%. Under the carbonization temperature of 700°C, a good free energy density of 7.99 Wh kg–1 at the ability density of 25 W kg–1 and cycling stability of 90.3% subsequently 20000 cycles are shown. In that location are as well some studies on the lignin-derived carbon with hierarchical porous architectures (Zhang et al., 2015a,b). Xi et al. (2021) obtained lignin-derived porous carbons with microstructural characteristics, high graphitization, high specific expanse, and hierarchical porosity for fabrication composites to convalesce the expansion and pulverisation phenomena of lithium-ion batteries. Such lignin-derived porous carbons facilitated dispersing/coating of SnO2 and increased the reversible specific chapters from 64 to 620 mAh m–1. Wan et al. (2021) converted lignin to carbon materials with 3D hierarchical porous structures. Afterwards phosphoric acrid plus hydrogen peroxide (PHP) oxidation pretreatment and KOH activation, the carbonized lignin reached a high surface area of 3094 thoutwo g–1 and pore volume of 1.72 cmiii m–1. The electrochemical measure results showed that the lignin-based carbon achieved a specific capacitance of 352.ix F g–i at 0.five A g–1, indicating an outstanding rate performance of this carbon electrode.
Figure 5. Schematic diagram of [Amim]LS precursors for Due north-doped porous carbon material fabrication (Xu Q. Q. et al., 2020).
Lignin-Derived Carbon Fibers
Lignin can be used equally a inexpensive precursor in the training of carbon fibers instead of petroleum-based polymers by electrospinning technique and carbonization (Garcia-Mateos et al., 2019). Lignin-based carbon fibers with unlike functions tin can exist obtained past adjusting the parameters of electrospinning, the template selected, and the materials loaded. For instance, Ma et al. (2021c) prepared carbon nanofibers using lignin and polyvinylpyrrolidone as carbon precursor by electrospinning, peroxidation, carbonization, and pickling processes. Zinc nitrate hexahydrate was added and pyrolyzed to produce zinc oxide, which was used as a template to produce abundant micropores, resulting in the high specific surface area of 1363 m2 one thousand–1. In view of the loftier specific surface surface area and abundant N/O groups, these lignin-derived carbon fibers with a specific capacitance of 289 F g–ane were seen as potential candidates for supercapacitor electrodes. Furthermore, the assembled symmetrical supercapacitor displayed outstanding cycling stability. Liu and Ma (2020) employed lignin as a renewable carbon source with polyacrylonitrile (PAN) and urea to prepare N-doped carbon nanofibers and then coated with polyaniline (PANI) for energy storage. The obtained lignin-based carbon fiber electrode displayed exceptional properties, including big specific surface areas of 483.1 m2 one thousand–one, uniform pore size distribution of ix.1 nm, and specific capacitance upward to 199.5 F g–i at 1 A g–i. Eighty-two percent of the initial capacitance was maintained after 1000 charge/discharge at four A g–1. Dai Z. et al. (2020) developed a N, O co-doped carbon nanofibers (E-CNFs) from waste product lignin and PAN by facile esterification and electrospinning method. The lignin esterification reaction was displayed in Figure half-dozen, and the resultant esterified lignin had a low glass transition temperature for college heteroatom content and ameliorate wettability of carbon nanofibers. E-CNF electrode exhibited a high capacitance of 320 F 1000–1 at a current density of 1 A g–1. An outstanding energy density of 17.92 Wh kg–1 at the power density of 800 West kg–1 was accomplished past E-CNF symmetric supercapacitors.
Figure 6. Illustration diagram of lignin esterification reaction (Dai Z. et al., 2020).
In addition to energy storage, lignin-derived carbon fibers take been used in the field of catalysis too. Lignin-based Pt supported carbon fiber electrocatalysts were prepared for alcohol electro-oxidation (Garcia-Mateos et al., 2017). Lignin/ethanol/phosphoric acid/platinum acetylacetonate solutions were called as precursors for electrospinning. Afterward thermostabilization and carbonization at 900°C, carbon fibers with porous structure and Pt particle loading were obtained. Among them, the addition of phosphorus improved the oxidation resistance, avoided the oxidation of the lignin-based carbon fibers in the preparation process, and led to the generation of microporous architectures, which were benign to enhance the catalyst functioning in the electro-oxidation of methanol and ethanol.
Lignin-Derived Carbon Dots
Carbon dot is a novel blazon of carbon nanomaterial, which was found in 2004 (Xu et al., 2004; Kang et al., 2020). Zhang et al. (2019) prepared carbon quantum dots with bright green fluorescence by a elementary one-pot route. Alkali lignin was employed equally a precursor. Chao et al. (2021) employed lignin-derived carbon dots as photothermal thermogenesis materials to enhance woods-derived evaporation system. Herein, the lignin-derived carbon dots were obtained past hydrothermal method. An evaporation performance of i.18 kg m–ii and efficiency up to 79.5% were achieved. Yang et al. (2020) developed a green arroyo to prepare sulfur-doped carbon dots by hydrothermal handling of lignin. The obtained lignin-derived carbon dots possessed sulfur-containing groups, exhibiting adept fluorescence with a quantum yield upwardly to 13.five% and outstanding stability in acidic environments with a wide pH range of 0–5.0. Therefore, this lignin-derived carbon dots were successfully used in detection of Sudan I in acidic conditions.
Conclusion and Perspectives
With the intensive investigation of lignin-based materials, the not bad development potential has been revealed in various fields. More and more than efforts should be devoted on lignin-based materials and lignin-derived carbon materials. Further perspectives in lignin-based materials and lignin-derived carbon materials are proposed as follows.
(1) The depression reactivity, solubility, and compatibility with conventional polymers of technical lignin enhance the difficulty of lignin to be a candidate to fabricate materials. Through chemical modification and careful design, these problems are partially or fully worked out, which expands the application of lignin in composite materials.
(2) Lignin does non stand for a unmarried substance, but for a group of substances that have common properties in plants. Lignin is heterogeneous in nature, and it commonly has heterogenous molecular weights, different functional groups, and different proportions of structural units. Information technology is not conducive to repeatability, uniformity, and scalability of lignin-based materials. The obtained uniform lignin product via fractionation process may exist one of the solutions for this problem.
(3) For lignin-derived activated carbon materials, chemical activators such every bit KOH and H3PO4 are often used to increment the specific surface area and the number of pores. Nevertheless, most of these chemic activators are highly corrosive to the instrument and non recoverable. Therefore, it is vital to adopt green activators or pattern physical approaches for grooming of lignin-derived activated carbon.
(4) The morphologies of lignin-derived carbon materials are always disordered and uncontrollable. It is necessary to blueprint hierarchical porous architectures according to unlike applications.
(five) For lignin composite materials, more advanced technologies and strategies should exist adult, like 3D printing and screen process. In add-on, other applications of lignin-derived materials should besides be designed, such as nanogenerators, thermal management, biomedical field, and then on.
Author Contributions
CM, KL, and M-GM: investigation. T-HK, S-EC, and CS: supervision. CM and Grand-GM: writing – original draft. M-GM, T-HK, KL, S-EC, and CS: writing – review and editing. All authors contributed to the commodity and approved the submitted version.
Funding
This research was supported by the cultivating excellent doctoral dissertation of forestry engineering science (LYGCYB202011) and the Engineering Evolution Plan (S3030198) funded by the Ministry building of SMEs and Startups (MSS, Due south Korea), and this work was also partially supported past R&D Program for Forest Science Applied science (2019151D10-2023-0301) provided by Korea Woods Service (Korea Forestry Promotion Institute) to S-EC.
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of whatsoever commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential disharmonize of involvement.
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